It has been shown that inhibiting Aurora-A-kinase can result in reexpression of primary cilia. Interestingly, Aurora-A kinase over-expression has been shown to occur in prostate cancer. Another pathway that could be targeted to allow for reexpression of primary cilia is the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Fatty acid synthesis is common in prostate cancer, and blocking this pathway has been shown to cause re-expression of primary cilia in a prostate Gomisin-D cancer cell line. A decrease in primary cilia expression was observed in preinvasive lesions, specifically in a subset of LG and HG PIN. Although LG PIN is not Alisol-A-24-acetate generally thought to be a precursor to invasive prostate cancer, Goeman et al. demonstrate that in a patient with LG PIN in the initial biopsy there was a 30% risk of developing invasive cancer. This was similar to the risk associated with a HG PIN diagnosis. This data suggests that a subset of LG PIN have the potential to develop into invasive prostate cancer. We observed a decrease of primary cilia frequency and length in a subset of LG PIN samples, suggesting that these LG PIN lesions are similar to what is observed in HG PIN. It is possible that these LG PIN lesions with decreased cilia frequency may be precursors to prostate cancer formation. Further work is needed to determine if loss of cilia in LG PIN can be predictive of prostate cancer formation. The frequency of primary cilia in cancers may be indicative of the efficacy of specific Hedgehog-targeted drugs for prostate cancer patients. Numerous Hedgehog-targeted drugs are being investigated both in clinical trials and in laboratories. Since primary cilia are lost in prostate tumors, we hypothesize that prostate cancer patients would not be good candidates for Smo-inhibitor drugs. However, we demonstrate that primary cilia loss does not change in the stroma surrounding cancers. Karlou et al. have shown paracrine Hedgehog signaling in a prostate mouse model, where prostate cancer cells secrete Hedgehog ligand and Smo-dependent Hedgehog AbMole Isovitexin activity is restricted to the prostate tumor stroma. We would predict that Smo-inhibitor drugs would be effective on the prostate cancer stroma, and may hinder the stroma-tumor relationship. However, treating a prostate cancer mouse model with a Smo-inhibitor did not reduce tumor burden, suggesting that Smo-inhibition may not be effective in prostate cancer patients.The conventional biochemical platform featuring enzymatic hydrolysis involves five key steps: pretreatment, cellulase production, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and product recovery, as shown in Figure 1. Sugars are produced as reactive intermediates for subsequent 
fermentation to fuels and chemicals. The steps involved in overcoming the recalcitrance of cellulosic biomass pretreatment, cellulase production and enzymatic hydrolysis are the three costliest steps in the entire process. Lowering the processing cost of these three steps is essential in order to make cellulosic biorefineries economically viable. One strategy to reduce the processing cost is through process consolidation.