For example, cafestol increases serum LDL cholesterol concentrations, caffeic acid and other polyphenols in coffee are potent antioxidants, and even decaffeinated coffee acutely increases blood pressure and muscle sympathetic nerve activity. Tens of studies investigating the relationship between coffee consumption and the incidence of CHD have been carried out, but the results remain inconsistent. Several large studies carried out in the United States have found no appreciable increase in CHD risk with increasing coffee consumption. Two earlier U.S. studies, however, reported a two-fold risk of myocardial infarction or CHD in men Columbianadin drinking 5 cups of coffee or more; the risk was three-fold among those drinking 10 cups or more, compared with non-drinkers. The findings have been in part dependent on the type of study: case control studies have generally reported higher effect estimates than cohort studies. In studies published more recently, the discrepancy between cohort and case�Ccontrol studies persists. As an explanation for the discrepancy between study types it has been suggested that coffee drinking has mainly acute or shortterm effects, which cohort studies with extended follow-up periods would be likely to miss. In general, the inconsistency between studies has been attributed to differences in coffee brews, study populations, range of coffee intake, confounding by smoking or other lifestyle factors, and measurement inaccuracy. Two recent studies have Citiolone observed a U-shaped pattern between coffee consumption and CHD incidence, suggesting that the relationship between coffee intake and CHD is more complex than previously recognized and offering yet another potential explanation for the contradictory findings in the literature. In both studies, the J- or U-shaped association persisted after adjustment for known risk factors for CHD, such as hypertension, high LDL cholesterol concentration, and diabetes, which could partially mediate the effects of coffee intake. In our previous study, the association was also independent of the brewing method of coffee, which has long been offered as a likely explanation for increased risk among heavy drinkers of non-filtered coffee.