Our investigation, to our knowledge, was the first to comprehensively study the effects of aniracetam across a variety of behaviors in healthy subjects. There are several possible reasons why we did not observe alterations in behavior. One reason may be due to the time frame used in our study. In a previous study, aniracetam was infused into the hippocampus. They found that intrahippocampal infusion of 2.0 to 4.0 mM of aniracetam enhances basal synaptic transmission in the dentate gyrus but the effect is only present for 30 minutes. The TAS-102 investigators found improvement in rodent learning in the Y-maze but their Cefathiamidine studies are also performed within this narrow window of treatment. The investigators reported that the effects of aniracetam on LTP in the hippocampus recovered to control level within 1 hour. It may be that aniracetam only has a 30 minute therapeutic window for improving learning and memory. In addition, the investigators found that aniracetam did not increase the ceiling for LTP induction. They found that rats with aniracetam treatment reached the maximal LTP induction more quickly. A future study could use passive avoidance to investigate the impact of aniracetam on one-trial learning. It may be that the effect of aniracetam is only observed at the early stages of learning and may have its strongest impact during this phase of learning. However, aniracetam treatment did not appear to improve fear conditioning on the initial learning day. There was not an increase in freezing in the mice given aniracetam on the second trial of fear conditioning. Even though this is not a sensitive test of one-trial learning an increase in freezing in the aniracetam group on the conditioning day would have suggested improved acute learning. Another study, which examined the pharmacokinetics of aniracetam in rats, found that oral administration of aniracetam attains peak levels within 30 min post-dosing. In our study, we began testing within 1 hr after the dose was administered to the animals. The Cmax after oral administration occurs at 20 min after dosing using HPLC.